A metropolis is a very large city or urban area which is a significant economic, political and cultural center for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections and communications.

Urban areas of less than one million people are rarely considered metropolises in contemporary contexts. Big cities belonging to a larger urban agglomeration, but which are not the core of that agglomeration, are not generally considered a metropolis but a part of it. The plural of the word is most commonly ''metropolises''.

Originally, a metropolis, literally a "mother city", was the city or state which sent colony out a colony (as of ancient Greece). This was later generalized to a city regarded as a center of a specified activity, or any large important city.

== Antiquity ==

In the past, ''metropolis'' was the designation for a city or state of origin of a colony. Many large cities founded by ancient civilizations have been considered important world metropolises of their times due to their large populations and importance. Some of these ancient metropolises survived until the modern days and are among the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities.

Etymology and modern usage

The word comes from the Greek μήτηρ, ''mētēr'' meaning "mother" and πόλις, ''pólis'' meaning "city"/"town", which is how the Greek colonies of antiquity referred to their original cities, with whom they retained cultic and political-cultural connections. The word was used in post-classical Latin for the chief city of a province, the seat of the government and, in particular, ecclesiastically for the seat or see of a metropolitan bishop to whom suffragan bishops were responsible. This usage equates the province with the diocese or episcopal see.

In modern usage the word has come to refer to a metropolitan area, a set of adjacent and interconnected cities clustered around a major urban center. In this sense ''metropolitan'' usually means "spanning the whole metropolis" (as in "metropolitan administration"); or "proper of a metropolis" (as in "metropolitan life", and opposed to "provincial" or "rural").

Global cities

The concept of a Global city (or a World city) means a city that has a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through socioeconomic means. The term has become increasingly familiar, because of the rise of globalization (i.e., global finance, communications, and travel). An attempt to define and categorize world cities by financial criteria was made by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group & Network (GaWC), based primarily at Loughborough University in England. The study ranked cities based on their provision of "advanced producer services" such as accountancy, advertising, finance and law. The Inventory identifies three levels of world cities and several sub-ranks (''see World cities ranking'').

A metropolis is not necessarily a global city—or, being one, it might not be among the top-ranking—due to its standards of living, development, and infrastructures.

Local definitions by country

Bangladesh

In the People's Republic of Bangladesh, there are seven metropolitan areas Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Khulna, Sylhet, Barisal and Rangpur. Lands are highly priced and residents are considered to have a better urban lifestyle. Special police departments are allotted for the metropolitan cities, and there are city corporations for which mayors are elected for five year regimes. Most of these cities have population density of 35,000/square mile or more. Dhaka is considered a mega city because its population surpasses 10 million.

Canada

Statistics Canada defines a census metropolitan area as one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core where the urban core has a population of at least 100,000. Toronto is Canada's largest metropolis.

India

In the Republic of India, declared metropolitan cities are Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, Guwahati, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Pune, and Ahmedabad. Residents of these cities are also entitled to a higher house-rent allowance. The Census Commission defines the qualification for metropolitan city as population more than 4 million, so Nashik, and Surat are qualified to be declared as metropolitan cities.

Italy

With the 2001 reform of the Title V of the Constitution of Italy, the Italian republic has provided for the institution of ''Aree Metropolitane''. ''Aree Metropolitane'' will be instituted at least for the major conurbations of Rome, Milan, Turin and Naples, but, , it is yet unclear whether the ''Aree Metropolitane'' will replace Provinces, or just be added to the older administrative subdivisions.

Japan

The Japanese legal term ''to'' (都) is commonly translated as "metropolis". Structured like a prefecture instead of a normal city, there is only one ''to'' in Japan, namely Tokyo. , Japan has 11 other cities with populations greater than one million.

Pakistan

In Pakistan declared metropolitan cities are Karachi and Lahore, while the ancient city of Multan and the industral hub of Punjab, Faisalabad, are also considered as metropolitan cities.

Philippines

With an estimated population of 16.3 Mio. Metro Manila is the most populous metropolitan area in the Philippines and the 11th in the world. Including Metro Manila, the Philippines has twelve metropolitan areas as defined by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA). Metro Angeles, Metro Bacolod, Metro Baguio, Metro Batangas, Metro Cagayan de Oro, Metro Cebu, Metro Dagupan, Metro Davao, Metro Iloilo-Guimaras, Metro Naga, Metro Olongapo.

Poland

The ''Union of Polish Metropolises'' (), established in 1990, is an organization uniting the largest cities in country. Presently twelve cities are members of the organization, of which 11 have more than a quarter million inhabitants. The largest metropolis in Poland, if ranked solely by the number of inhabitants, is Upper Silesian Metropolis with 2 million inhabitants (5 million inhabitants in the Silesian metropolitan area), followed by Warsaw, with 1.7 million inhabitants in city proper, and 2.7 million in Warsaw metropolitan area. Upper Silesian Metropolis is an initiative of recent years, attempt to unite large conurbation/urban area into one official urban unit.

South Africa

In South Africa, a metropolitan municipality or "Category A municipality" is a municipality which executes all the functions of local government for a conurbation. This is by contrast to areas which are primarily rural, where the local government is divided into district municipalities (comparable to a "county" in the US) and local municipalities. There are eight metropolitan municipalities in South Africa.

United Kingdom

Various conurbations in the United Kingdom are considered to be metropolitan areas (see Metropolitan county). The term ''Metropolis'' itself is rarely used. London is archaically referred to as "the Metropolis", which is only retained by the London police force, the Metropolitan Police Service. (The chief officer of the Met is formally known as the Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis.)

United States

In the United States an incorporated area or group of areas having a population more than 50,000 is required to have a metropolitan planning organization in order to facilitate major infrastructure projects and to ensure financial solvency. Thus, a population of 50,000 or greater has been used as a de facto standard in the United States to define a metropolis. A similar definition is used by the United States Census Bureau. They define a metropolitan statistical area as ''at least one urbanized area of 50,000 or more inhabitants''.

Metropolis as a mainland area

In France, Portugal and Spain, ''metropolis'' (''métropole'' (Fr.) / ''metrópole'' (Port.) / ''metrópoli'' (Spa.)) designates the mainland part of a country near or on the European continent; in the case of France, this would mean France without its overseas departments; for Portugal and Spain during the Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire period, it used to be common to designate Portugal or Spain except its colonies (the ''Ultramar''). In France ''metropolis'' is also used to refer to large agglomerations.

See also

; Other city types

Global city

Megacity

Megalopolis

; Lists

List of metropolitan areas by population

; Planning theories

New Urbanism

Smart growth

Transit-oriented development

; Other

Ekistics

Large Cities Climate Leadership Group

Sustainable city

World's largest cities

References

External links

Census.gov, U.S. Census Bureau, ''About Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistics''

MetroForum.com, forum dedicated to discussions on metropolis

Blog.ar2com.de, a podcast with a worldwide analysis of megacities (focus Latin America)

E-geopolis.eu: research group, university of Paris-Diderot, France

Category:Urban geography Category:Demographics Category:Lists of cities Category:Greek colonization

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Name	Fritz Lang
Birth date	December 05, 1890
Birth place	Vienna, Austria-Hungary
Birth name	Friedrich Christian Anton Lang
Influences	Sigmund Freud, Friedrich Nietzsche, Georges Denola
Influenced	Jean-Luc Godard, Alfred Hitchcock, Orson Welles, Claude Chabrol, Luis Buñuel, Stanley Kubrick, Ken Russell
Death date	August 02, 1976
Death place	Beverly Hills, California, U.S.
Occupation	Film director, film producer
Years active	1919–1960
Spouse	Lisa Rosenthal (1919-1921)Thea von Harbou (1922-1933)Lily Latté (1971-1976)}}

Friedrich Christian Anton "Fritz" Lang (December 5, 1890 – August 2, 1976) was an Austrian-American filmmaker, screenwriter, and occasional film producer and actor. One of the best known ''émigrés'' from Germany's school of Expressionism, he was dubbed the "Master of Darkness" by the British Film Institute. His most famous films are the groundbreaking ''Metropolis'' (the world's most expensive silent film at the time of its release) and ''M'', made before he moved to the United States, his iconic precursor to the ''film noir'' genre.

Life and career

Early life

Lang was born in Vienna as the second son of Anton Lang (1860–1940), an architect and construction company manager, and his wife Pauline "Paula" Lang née Schlesinger (1864–1920). Fritz Lang himself was baptized on 28 December 1890 at the Schottenkirche in Vienna.

Lang's parents were of Moravian descent and practicing Roman Catholics. His mother was born Jewish, but had converted to Catholicism when Fritz was ten. His mother took this conversion seriously and was dedicated to raising Fritz as a Catholic. Lang never had an interest in his Jewish heritage and identified himself as Catholic. Although he was not a particularly devout Catholic, he "regularly used Catholic images and themes [in] his films".

After finishing school, Lang briefly attended the Technical University of Vienna, where he studied civil engineering and eventually switched to art. In 1910 he left Vienna to see the world, traveling throughout Europe and Africa and later Asia and the Pacific area. In 1913, he studied painting in Paris, France.

At the outbreak of World War I, Lang returned to Vienna and volunteered for military service in the Austrian army and fought in Russia and Romania, where he was wounded three times. While recovering from his injuries and shell shock in 1916, he wrote some scenarios and ideas for films. He was discharged from the army with the rank of lieutenant in 1918 and did some acting in the Viennese theater circuit for a short time before being hired as a writer at Decla, Erich Pommer's Berlin-based production company.

Expressionist films: the Weimar years (1918-1933)

His writing stint was brief, as Lang soon started to work as a director at the German film studio Ufa, and later Nero-Film, just as the Expressionist movement was building. In this first phase of his career, Lang alternated between art films such as ''Der Müde Tod'' ("The Weary Death") and popular thrillers such as ''Die Spinnen'' ("The Spiders"), combining popular genres with Expressionist techniques to create an unprecedented synthesis of popular entertainment with art cinema. In 1920, he met his future wife, the writer and actress Thea von Harbou. She and Lang co-wrote all of his movies from 1921 through 1933, including 1922's ''Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler'' (Dr. Mabuse the Gambler), which ran for over four hours in two parts in the original version and was the first in the Dr. Mabuse trilogy, 1924's five-hour ''Die Nibelungen'', the famous 1927 film ''Metropolis'', and the 1931 classic, ''M'', his first "talking" picture.

Although some consider Lang's work to be simple melodrama, he produced a coherent oeuvre that helped to establish the characteristics of ''film noir'', with its recurring themes of psychological conflict, paranoia, fate and moral ambiguity. His work influenced filmmakers as disparate as Jacques Rivette and William Friedkin.

In 1931, after ''Woman in the Moon'', Lang directed what many film scholars consider to be his masterpiece: ''M'', a disturbing story of a child murderer (Peter Lorre in his first starring role) who is hunted down and brought to rough justice by Berlin's criminal underworld. ''M'' remains a powerful work; it was remade in 1951 by Joseph Losey, but this version had little impact on audiences, and has become harder to see than the original film. Lang epitomized the stereotype of the tyrannical German film director such as Erich von Stroheim and Otto Preminger; he was known for being hard to work with. During the climactic final scene in ''M'', he allegedly threw Peter Lorre down a flight of stairs in order to give more authenticity to Lorre's battered look. His wearing a monocle added to the stereotype.

At the end of 1932, Lang started filming ''The Testament of Dr. Mabuse''. Adolf Hitler came to power in January 1933, and by March 30, the new regime banned it as an incitement to public disorder. ''Testament'' is sometimes deemed an anti-Nazi film as Lang had put phrases used by the Nazis into the mouth of the title character.

Whereas Lang was worried about the advent of the Nazi regime, partly because of his Jewish heritage, his wife and screen writer Thea von Harbou had started to sympathize with the Nazis in the early 1930s and joined the NSDAP in 1932. They soon divorced. Lang's fears would be realized following his departure from Austria, as under Nazi eugenics laws he would be identified as a Jew even though his mother was a converted Roman Catholic, and he was raised as such.

Emigration

Shortly afterwards, Lang left Germany. According to Lang, propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels called Lang to his offices to inform him that ''The Testament of Dr Mabuse'' was being banned but that he was nevertheless so impressed by Lang's abilities as a filmmaker (especially ''Metropolis''), he was offering Lang a position as the head of German film studio UFA. Lang had been, unbeknownst to Goebbels, already planning to leave Germany for Paris, but the meeting with Goebbels ran so long that the banks were closed by the time it finished. Lang has stated that he fled that very evening.

Lang left Germany in 1934 and moved to Paris after his marriage to Thea von Harbou, who stayed behind, ended in 1933.

In Paris, Lang filmed a version of Ferenc Molnár's ''Liliom'', starring Charles Boyer. This was Lang's only film in French (not counting the French version of ''Testament''). He then went to the United States.

Hollywood career (1936-1957)

Upon his arrival in Hollywood, Lang joined the MGM studio and directed the crime drama ''Fury'', starring Spencer Tracy as a man wrongly lynched for a crime he didn't commit. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1939. Lang made twenty-one features in the next twenty-one years, working in a variety of genres at every major studio in Hollywood, occasionally producing his films as an independent. These films, often compared unfavorably by contemporary critics to Lang's earlier works, have since been reevaluated as being integral to the emergence and evolution of American genre cinema, ''film noir'' in particular.

One of his most famous ''films noir'' is the police drama ''The Big Heat'' (1953), noted for its uncompromising brutality, especially for a scene in which Lee Marvin throws scalding coffee on Gloria Grahame's face. During this period, his visual style simplified (owing in part to the constraints of the Hollywood studio system) and his worldview became increasingly pessimistic, culminating in the cold, geometric style of his last American films, ''While the City Sleeps'' (1956) and ''Beyond a Reasonable Doubt'' (1956).

Lang found it harder to find congenial production conditions in Hollywood and his advancing age left him less inclined to grapple with American backers. The German producer Artur Brauner expressed interest in remaking ''The Indian Tomb'' (a story that Lang had developed in the twenties that was ultimately taken from him by studio heads and directed instead by Joe May), so Lang abandoned his plans for retirement and returned to Germany in order to make his "Indian Epic". Following the production, Brauner was ready to proceed with his remake of ''Das Testament des Doctor Mabuse'' when Lang approached him with the idea of adding another original film to the series. The result was ''The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse'' (1960), made in a hurry and with a relatively small budget. It can be viewed as the marriage between the director's early experiences with expressionist techniques in Germany as well as the spartan style already visible in his late American work. Lang was approaching blindness during the production, making it his final project.

Death and legacy

While his career had ended without fanfare, his American and later German works were championed by the critics of the ''Cahiers du cinéma''. Lang died in 1976 and was interred in the Forest Lawn - Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles.

Filmography

Pop culture

Lang appears as himself in Jean-Luc Godard's 1963 film ''Le Mepris''. During the film, his reputation is discussed, and he somewhat lampoons his own reputation for being a temperamental director.

An old German director with the demeanor of Lang appears during the filming of a bank robbery in Woody Allen's 1969 comedy ''Take the Money and Run.''

In David Foster Wallace's novel ''Infinite Jest'', Lang is mentioned in tandem with James Cameron on page 48.

A fictional Lang appears as a main character in the ''Fullmetal Alchemist'' movie ''Conqueror of Shambala''.

In Episode 11 of Season 1 of ''City Hunter'', the antagonist's name is Fritz Lang.

Madonna portrayed Lang for a sequence in her 1989 music video for Express Yourself, complete with Lang's signature suit and monocle. The video itself is a tribute to Metropolis (film).

References

Further reading

Michaux, Agnès. 'Je les chasserai jusqu'au bout du monde jusqu'à ce qu'ils en crèvent''; Paris: Editions 1, 1997; ISBN 2863919334

Friedrich, Otto. ''City of Nets'': ''A Portrait of Hollywood in the 1940s''; New York: Harper & Row, 1986; ISBN 0060156260 (See e.g. pp. 45–46 for anecdotes revealing Lang's arrogance.)

McGilligan, Patrick. ''Fritz Lang: The Nature of the Beast''; New York: St. Martins Press, 1997; ISBN 0312132476

Schnauber, Cornelius. ''Fritz Lang in Hollywood''; Wien: Europaverlag, c1986; ISBN 3203509539 (in German)

- Contains interviews with Lang and a discussion of the making of the film ''M''

External links

Fritz Lang Bibliography (via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center)

Senses of Cinema - Biographie

Fritz Lang at filmportal.de

Interview with Fritz Lang from 1967

Bibliography

"Symptôme, exhibition, angoisse. Représentation de la terreur dans l’œuvre allemande de Fritz Lang (1919-1933/1959-1960)", un article de Nicole Brenez extrait de ''De la Figure en général et du Corps en particulier'' (1998).

Category:1890 births Category:1976 deaths Category:American film directors Category:American Roman Catholics Category:American people of Moravian-German descent Category:American people of Austrian-Jewish descent Category:American people of German-Jewish descent Category:American screenwriters Category:Austrian expatriates in France Category:Austrian expatriates in Germany Category:Austrian film directors Category:Austrian emigrants to the United States Category:Austrian people of Jewish descent Category:Austrian Roman Catholics Category:Austrian people of Moravian-German descent Category:Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills) Category:English-language film directors Category:German-language film directors Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:People from Margareten Category:People from Vienna Category:Vienna University of Technology alumni Category:Western (genre) film directors Category:Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Category:People who emigrated to escape Nazism Category:Wearers of monocles

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bgcolour	#6495ED
name	Chris Burden
birth place	Boston, Massachusetts
nationality	American
field	Performance artist
training	Pomona CollegeUniversity of California, Irvine
awards	}}

Christopher "Chris" Burden (born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1946) is an American artist working in performance, sculpture, and installation art.

Life and career

Education

Burden studied for his B.A. in visual arts, physics and architecture at Pomona College and received his MFA at the University of California, Irvine from 1969 to 1971.

Early performance art

Burden began to work in performance art in the early 1970s, he made a series of controversial performances in which the idea of personal danger as artistic expression was central. His most well-known act from that time is perhaps the 1971 performance piece ''Shoot'', in which he was shot in his left arm by an assistant from a distance of about five meters. Other performances from the 1970s were ''Five Day Locker Piece'' (1971), ''Deadman'' (1972), ''B.C. Mexico'' (1973), ''Fire Roll'' (1973), ''TV Hijack'' (1972), ''Doomed'' (1975) and ''Honest Labor'' (1979).

One of Burden’s most reproduced and cited pieces, ''Trans-Fixed'' took place in 1974 at Speedway Avenue in Venice, California. For this performance, Burden lay face up on a Volkswagen Beetle and had nails hammered into both of his hands, as if he were being crucified on the car.The car was pushed out of the garage and the engine revved for two minutes before being pushed back into the garage.

Later that year, Burden performed his piece ''White Light/White Heat'' at the Ronald Feldman gallery in New York. For this work of experiment performance and self-inflicting danger, Burden spent twenty-two days lying on a triangular platform in the corner of the gallery. He was out of sight from all viewers and he could not see them either. According to Burden, he did not eat, talk, or come down the entire time.

Several of Burden's other performance pieces were considered somewhat controversial at the time: another "danger piece" was ''Doomed'', in which Burden lay motionless in a museum gallery under a slanted sheet of glass, with a clock running nearby. Unbeknownst to the museum owners, Chris had planned to remain in that position until someone interfered in some way with the piece. Forty-five hours later, a museum guard placed a pitcher of water in reaching distance to Burden. Burden then smashed the glass, and took a hammer to the clock, thus ending the piece.

In 1975, he created the fully operational ''B-Car'', a lightweight four-wheeled vehicle that he described as being "able to travel 100 miles per hour and achieve 100 miles per gallon". Some of his other works from that period are ''DIECIMILA'' (1977), a facsimile of an Italian 10,000 Lira note, possibly the first fine art print that (like paper money) is printed on both sides of the paper; ''The Speed of Light Machine'' (1983), in which he reconstructed a scientific experiment with which to "see" the speed of light; and the installation ''C.B.T.V.'' (1977), a reconstruction of the first ever made Mechanical television.

In 1978, he became a professor at University of California, Los Angeles, a position from which he resigned in 2005 due to a controversy over the university's alleged mishandling of a student's classroom performance piece that echoed one of Burden's own performance pieces. Burden cited the performance in his letter of resignation, saying that the student should have been suspended during the investigation into whether school safety rules had been violated. The performance allegedly involved a loaded gun, but authorities were unable to substantiate this.

Later life

In 1992, Burden exhibited his ''Fist of Light'' during the Whitney Biennial exhibition in New York. It consisted of a sealed kitchen-sized metal box with hundreds of metal halide lamps burning inside. It required an industrial air conditioner to cool the room.

In 1999, Burden's sculpture ''When Robots Rule: The Two Minute Airplane Factory'' was shown at the Tate Gallery in London. It was a "factory-like assembly line which manufactures rubber-band-powered model aeroplanes from tissue paper, plastic and balsa wood". Each plane had a propellor powered by a rubber band, and when each was completed, at a rate of one every 2 minutes, the machine launched it to fly up and circle around the gallery. Unfortunately, the machine was non-functional for at least two months of the installation, leading ''World Sculpture News'' to question the intent of the piece and remark that "the work illustrated that robots, in fact, don’t rule everything, and for the time being, are still subjected to individual and groups shortcomings."

In 2005, Burden released ''Ghost Ship'', his crewless, self-navigating yacht which docked at Newcastle-upon-Tyne on 28 July after a 330-mile 5-day trip from Fair Isle, near Shetland. The project was commissioned by Locus+ at a cost of £150,000, and was funded with a significant grant from Arts Council England, being designed and constructed with the help of the Marine Engineering Department of the University of Southampton. It is said to be controlled via onboard computers and a GPS system; however, in case of emergency the ship is 'shadowed' by an accompanying support boat.

In the Summer of 2011, Burden finished his kinetic sculpture, ''Metropolis II'', which took four years to build. It is scheduled to be installed at LACMA in Fall 2011.

Personal life

Chris Burden is married to multi-media artist Nancy Rubins. He currently lives and works in Los Angeles, California. His studio is located in Topanga Canyon.

Burden was referenced in David Bowie's 1977 song "Joe the Lion", Laurie Anderson's 1977 song "It's Not the Bullet that Kills You - It's the Hole (for Chris Burden)" on the double LP "Airwaves", and in the diary of Nathan Adler from the David Bowie album "1. OUTSIDE". He was also mentioned in the Jeff Lindsay book "Dexter by Design", and in Norman Mailer's book "The Faith of Graffiti".

References

External links

''Chris Burden'' by Robert Horvitz - detailed overview and analysis of Burden's early work, published in the May 1976 issue of Artforum magazine

1996 review of Burden's MAK retrospective

Ghost Ship

Chris Burden at Tate Gallery, London: Review of installation ''When robots rule: The two minute airplane factory'', ''World Sculpture News/artdesigncafe'', Spring 1999

UbuWeb Film & Video: Chris Burden

A feature article on Burden in June 2008 issue of ''Men's Vogue''

"Poetic, Model: A New Criticism Of Chris Burden via Evil Monito Magazine"

Chris Burden in the Mediateca Media Art Space

Photos of Chris Burden's Urban Light near the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, CA

Category:1946 births Category:Living people Category:American artists Category:Guggenheim Fellows Category:American installation artists Category:Video artists Category:Body art Category:BioArtists Category:Postmodern artists Category:Artists from Massachusetts Category:Artists from California Category:Pomona College alumni Category:Art in the Greater Los Angeles Area Category:American performance artists

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